Meanwhile, near the South Pole...
A look at the mission that occupies the U.S. Coast Guard's only 'Heavy' Polar Icebreaker
Note: This is part of a continuing series on Arctic policy and icebreakers. To look at previous articles, click here.
A couple of weeks ago we looked at the importance of U.S. presence in the Arctic region. Today, we will look at the mission that occupies 50% of the U.S. Coast Guard’s polar icebreakers- one that indirectly involves the Great Power Competition with China and Russia by supporting Antarctic scientific research.
Antarctic Background
Antarctica is different. The Arctic region is national space, governed by sovereign law and the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS). Antarctica is land with overlapping, unresolved claims that is governed by a treaty and a series of follow-on agreements that basically allow nations to ignore these territorial claims while cooperating in scientific research.
The National Science and Technology Council nicely summarizes the situation: (emphasis mine)
Seven nations - Argentina, Australia, Chile, France, New Zealand, Norway and the United Kingdom - claim territorial sovereignty over parts of Antarctica. The claims of Argentina, Chile, and the United Kingdom overlap in the Antarctic Peninsula. In addition, a part of the continent is unclaimed. The United States neither asserts a claim nor recognizes the claims of others. At the same time, the United States has maintained a basis of claim, deriving originally from early U.S. expeditions of exploration and discovery in Antarctica.
The Antarctic Treaty "freezes" the positions of both claimants and non-claimants and thereby permits its Parties to undertake cooperative activities and agree on collective regulation of those activities, without prejudice to their legal positions. This conflict avoidance and conflict resolution mechanism is key to the political system of governance embodied in the Treaty. The primary provisions of the Treaty are:
the guarantee of freedom of scientific research in Antarctica;
reservation of Antarctica exclusively for peaceful purposes, including a prohibition on all military activities;
balance between the opposed legal positions on the status of Antarctica (claimant vs. non-claimant);
consensus as the basic principle of decision-making; and
conduct of substantial scientific research in Antarctica as the basis for full participation in decision-making (the "activities criterion").
Maintaining the system of governance which has evolved under the Antarctic Treaty, and ensuring that is continues to be a dynamic and responsive mechanism, thus, is also a key element in achievement of U.S. Antarctic policy objectives.
Presence matters. According to the State Department:
The United States has developed a world class program of scientific research in Antarctica and shaped the innovative resource management arrangements that have evolved under the Treaty. The effective operation of the Antarctic Treaty is a direct result of the active and influential United States presence in Antarctica maintained through the Antarctic Program. This presence accords the United States a decisive role in the Treaty's activities based decision system and in maintaining the political and legal balance that makes the Treaty work.
In short, presence is power. And the USA is present in large numbers. According to the CIA world factbook, there were 1495 Americans in Antarctica (out of a total population of 4,713) during the most recent summer season. That’s about 32 percent of the total. Argentina was second, with 425 people. During the winter, the U.S. keeps 215 personnel on station out of 1056 in total (about 20%), second only to Argentina’s 221.
The U.S. Presence in Antarctica Depends on Icebreaking
The U.S. Antarctic Program (USAP) operates three stations in Antarctica, McMurdo Station, Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station, and Palmer Station.
McMurdo Station: Located at 77 degrees 51 minutes south, it is the largest Antarctic station and the logistics hub of the USAP, with a harbor, landing strips, and a helipad. It is the farthest point south that is accessible by ship. The Polar Star is the only U.S. vessel capable of opening a channel to McMurdo Station. Other nations that support Antarctic Research with icebreakers or polar research vessels work in more accessible regions of the continent, meaning that their vessels could not support the McMurdo breakout.
Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station: Americans have occupied the geographic South Pole continuously since November 1956. It is supplied by air from McMurdo Station.
Palmer Station: Located on a protected harbor on the southwestern coast of Anvers Island off the Antarctica Peninsula. North of the Antarctic Circle, it is suitable for the study of birds, seals, and other components of the marine ecosystem. The National Science Foundation operates two ice-capable research vessels, R/V Laurence M. Gould and the R/V Nathaniel B Palmer in this region. Note that neither vessel is built as an assist icebreaker. They cannot break open channels or assist other vessels in ice, but the Gould is capable of making regular supply runs between South American ports and Palmer Station.
Field Camps: During Antarctic summer, researchers establish temporary camps at additional locations.
These stations are not all equal. According to the State Department:
United States presence at the South Pole Station demonstrates United States commitment to assert its rights in Antarctica, its basis of claim, and its commitment to conduct cutting edge scientific research there. Abandonment of the Station would create a vacuum and likely result in a scramble to occupy the site, to the detriment of our position as well as to the stability of the Treaty system.
Resupplying Antarctica: Operation Deep Freeze:
On March 31st, 2024, the U.S. Coast Guard’s ‘Heavy’ Polar Icebreaker Polar Star returned to the United States following 138 days away in support of Operation Deep Freeze (ODF) 2024.
The Polar Star and crew broke a 38-mile channel through fast ice to create a navigable route for vessels to reach McMurdo Station and escorted a cargo vessel and oil tanker through the ice to and from the station.
Every year, ODF brings in about 8 million gallons of fuel and 11 million pounds of supplies by sea, some of which are forwarded to the South Pole Station via air1. And each year, following ODF, the Polar Star enters drydock for maintenance that continues to extend its service life. She completes no other missions2.
Following a casualty to Polar Sea and before reactivation of Polar Star, the National Science Foundation sought chartered icebreakers to complete ODF:
From 2010 to 2013, the United States did not have a heavy icebreaker available for the breakout of McMurdo Station. Icebreaking services were provided by chartered foreign-flag ships, including the Oden and the Vladimir Ignatyuk3.
The Swedish Government now requires Oden to be in home waters during Baltic winter. The Russian vessel Vladimir Ignatyuk is no longer in operation. Today, there are virtually no icebreakers available to charter during the Antarctic summer. As a result, should Polar Star become unavailable, the U.S. Antarctic Program would find itself without re-supply. Although the stations are supplied well enough to miss a single ODF, a long-term lack of capability would put the U.S. presence in Antarctica at great risk.
The Direct Benefit of USCG Support: Scientific Research
According to the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine (The National Academies):
Antarctica serves as a time machine for scientists, allowing them to explore Earth’s past climates, understand the forces that shape today’s climate, and predict what changes to the continent — and globally — will affect the future. Ice cores drilled from deep within the 2-mile-thick ice sheets that blanket nearly all of Antarctica contain frozen air bubbles that show snapshots of the atmosphere tens of thousands of years ago. The bone-chilling waters encircling the continent drive circulation patterns across global oceans, allowing for the exchange of heat and carbon dioxide. Antarctica’s ice sheets contain 70% of Earth’s freshwater, so researchers monitor them closely to estimate how their melting will raise sea levels around the globe.
Antarctica and the Southern Ocean are full of life and opportunities found nowhere else on the planet. The unique organisms that thrive there have tremendous potential to transform medicine and ecology — for example, some scientists believe understanding their biology could uncover new compounds to fight cancer or antibiotic-resistant bacteria. Likewise, observing how climate change affects these remote ecosystems and food chains can inform efforts to make our own food supply more resilient. And even scientists looking beyond our planet rely on work in Antarctica — cold, clear skies and long, dark nights make Antarctica an unparalleled vantage point for astronomers viewing our Universe.
The Indirect Benefit: A Decisive Role in Governance
A number of recent articles and reports, including Elizabeth Buchanan’s March 2024 Great Power Competition Comes to Antarctica, suggest that China is building up its Antarctic presence in order to advance its military and economic interests there:
China, Iran, and others are pushing the boundaries of what types of activities are sanctioned on the continent and are contemplating future territorial claims. Last fall, Shahram Irani, the commander of the Iranian navy, announced that Tehran had plans to build a permanent base in Antarctica, even going so far as to claim that Iran somehow had “property rights” in the South Pole. Then, in November, China’s largest ever Antarctic fleet arrived with some 460 personnel to build the country’s fifth research station on the continent. They completed their work in three months, and the station opened in February. Under the Antarctic Treaty, which governs activities on the continent, China's expansion is entirely permissible. That the new station is legal doesn’t stop suspicion from brewing that China’s research stations could house activities with military utility, including for surveillance purposes. Research satellites might track ice shelf shifts on Monday and on Tuesday pivot to mapping force movements in Australia.
A 2023 RAND study states:
Chinese sources seem to view scientific activities in Antarctica as a tool to gain a ‘right to speak’ in regional affairs, allowing China to have greater influence in the region.
Gaining this voice though presence would help China (and Russia) to get their desires through either ignoring existing treaty obligations or by renegotiating portions of the Antarctic Treaty System, such as the 1991 Madrid Protocol on Environmental Protection, which comes up for re-negotiation in 2048, as Australia’s Lowy Institute Reports:
{China’s} efforts appear to be driven primarily by economics, especially in regard to krill fishing and mining, both of which fall under China’s vague goal of Antarctic “utilisation”. Along with Russia, China’s long-distance fishing fleet – the world’s largest – is rapidly expanding its krill industry, deploying super trawlers in the name of scientific research (in krill research zones) that will eventually collect more krill than is allowed under the Antarctic Territory System.
Both Russia and China have repeatedly rejected new marine protection areas and are likely to continue growing their lucrative fishing industries. China has so far resisted other signatories’ efforts to rein in its fishing ambitions. While other signatories are willing to abide by the limits imposed by the Antarctic Territory System, China and Russia appear to want to ignore them.
Similarly, China is eager to undertake onshore and offshore mineral extraction in Antarctica, despite being a signatory to the 1991 Madrid Protocol, which bans such activities. Some experts posit that in the future, China may be able to develop advanced mining technologies in anticipation of the Protocol’s potential 2048 renegotiation where it may seek to legalise some forms of mining. As the Antarctic Territory System currently has no enforcement mechanism, RAND added that Chinese Antarctic mining activities could consequently open “the floodgates for similar activities”.
Many of these articles argue for additional presence and enforcement mechanisms with regard to the Antarctic Treaty. From a Great Power competition standpoint, it seems necessary for the U.S. to maintain considerable Antarctic Presence in order to thwart China’s desires to use the region for military and economic purposes. That means, at a minimum, continuing support for Operation Deep Freeze. Enhanced inspections and other measures to enforce the Antarctic Treaty System should be considered in cooperation with our allies and partners, especially those that do not require additional USCG icebreaker support.
Concluding Thoughts:
I can’t speak directly to the value of the scientific research being done by the U.S. Antarctic Program, as it is beyond my experience and background. But the National Foundations and others appear pleased with the ongoing work- and the U.S. presence required by that work gives the USA significant influence in Antarctic governance under the current treaty system. As China and others increase their presence in search of additional influence, it seems clear that keeping a U.S. seat at the table is in our national interest.
Keeping McMurdo Station supplied is probably the most urgent mission for the U.S. Coast Guard’s icebreakers, as failing to accomplish it would have near-term consequences. It seems reasonable, therefore, to use Polar Star to support Operation Deep Freeze until there is a better solution.
A better solution may be an icebreaker built to commercial standards for significantly less than a planned Polar Security Cutter, freeing up a more capable multi-mission icebreaker for other missions. But that is a topic for another day.
Until then, thanks for reading, subscribing, and spreading the word.
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All the Best,
PGR
Operation Deep Freeze 2020 was cancelled due to COVID restrictions. McMurdo stores extra supplies and can survive a missed year but may need to downsize/limit research.
Polar Star did an Arctic patrol due to the cancellation of ODF in 2020, but this is the exception. She also conducts port visits and exercises while sailing to/from McMurdo but does not generally contribute to U.S. Arctic Strategy.
Good to see someone discussing Antarctica. You may be interested in my 29 February Pacific Brief.